Furthermore, this fruit is a good source of energy, with an energetic value of 88 to 95kcal/100g, and an important source of vitamin A and potassium. Some varieties are distinguished according to their difference of size, colour (green, yellow or red), more or less sweet taste and their consumption. Bananas can be harvested all the year round, there may even be three harvestings in a year and its amount depends on the season. Those intended for export are harvested green and taken in freezer boats to their place of destination. Later on, they mature quite easily in equipped cold storage rooms. During maturation, the fruit starch turns into sugar while the aromatic substances and the acids that balance sweetness are formed. Once mature, they should not be kept in the freezer because they loose taste and they can be damaged with the cold temperature . 

Types and Varieties of Bananas

The main types of this fruit are distinguished for their use, size, shape and colour. The most common varieties belong to the Cavendish Series. Some names of varieties are, for example, Cavendish, Gros Michel or Valery, although commercially they are known with other names that correspond to the brand of great multinationals (Chiquita, Turbana, Fyffes, Geest, Dole, Del Monte, etc.). The banana trees have been cultivated in all the tropical countries, but the great majority comes from South America and Central America. Only some special varieties, like Arroz and Manzano, come from Southeast Asia. The main varieties or cultivars belong to the Sub-group or Cavendish series and are Pequeña Enana, Gran Enana and Williams, although there also exist Chinese Cavendish or Chica. Besides, some Israeli cultivars like GAL, Zelik, Eilan and Nathan may be interesting for the subtropical areas. 

The main banana producers are the countries of South America, Central America and Asia . In Europe, Spain is the main producer (Canary Islands). Colombia, in South America, is the greater banana producer, being Musa paradisiaca, Gros Michel and Pátano Enano the most commonly known cultivars. In the second place we find Brazil, that produces ‘ Musa paradisiaca and ‘Lacatan’. In Costa Rica, the most important commercial cultivars are Gran Enano, Valery (Magazine ASBANA, V.13, No 31 – 1989). In Asia, ‘Plátano Rojo‘, ‘Plátano Enano‘ , ‘Plátano Manzano’ and ‘Plátano Arroz’. In Europe, the main banana producer is Spain. The ‘Plátano Enano’ is cultivated in the Canary Islands. 

Some varieties of bananas are: 

‘Gros Michel’
One of the first varieties cultivated for export that istill produced in Colombia and Ecuador, although it is being replaced by ‘Cavendish’. It is characterized for being a great and vigorous plant, with symmetrical and heavy clusters. Great size fruit, with a bottle shape and very homogenous maturation. The pods are intense green in the superior part and rosaceous in the inferior part. 

‘Plátano enano or dominico’
Produced in the Canary Islands, Thailand, Malaysia, India, Kenya and Colombia. It measures from 10 to 12cm and it is a small variety whose flavour and sweetness are better than those of the normal banana. 

‘Plátano guineo’
Native of Southeastern Asia, at the moment Brazil and Kenya export it all throughout the year. The fruit measures from 8 to 10cm, it has a very thin skin and a slight apple flavour. 

‘Plátano macho’
Also called great banana or for cooking. Not very known in Europe, although in many tropical countries it is a basic food. It is used when green in different dishes, cooked, fried, grilled or for baby food, but not raw. It is usually bigger and with more bends than standard bananas. Green, yellow or purple colour. 

‘Plátano rojo’
Rare variety from the Southeastern part of Asia; it is mainly consumed warm, because the heat accentuates the tasty qualities of the red flesh. It has a red, pink or mixed with green skin. 

Sub-group or Cavendish Series: 

‘Gran Enano or Giant Cavendish’
Greater fruit, greater weight and cylindrical, although shorter and more curved than those of the clone ‘Robusta’. Plant of low habit, thick pseudostem and wide foliar system. 

‘Lacatan’
It is considered as a primitive type of ‘Cavendish’ from which all the other cultivars originated by mutation. The main producing countries are Brazil and Cameroun. The fruits are similar to ‘Valery’. High and vigorous plant, similar to ‘Gros Michel’. 

‘Robusta’
Mainly exported from the Ivory Coast. Also named ‘Poyo’, this variety developed from ‘Cavendish’. Shorter fruit with a very sweet flavour. 

‘Valery’
Great fruits but less cylindrical than those of ‘Gros Michel’. Sweet and consistent flavour. The name is registered as a brand. 

The Plant 

The banana tree is an herbaceous plant with very great and showy leaves, whose real stem is a bulb which sprouts every year.  The inflorescence gives rise to ‘hands’ generally formed by ‘fingers’, that are the yellow fruits. The banana belongs to the Musaceous family and the Musa type. In the tropical and subtropical areas, this family is only represented by 6 genus and 220 species, of which 50 or 60 belong to the Musa type. This is divided in two subgenus, the Australimusa, based in the Pacific area, with no commercial importance. Another, the Eumuds, native of Asia; to this group belong the standard bananas, the variety of bananas whose importance surpasses the rest. The Musa genus is divided in five sections, of which the Eumusa section includes two species, Musa acuminata Colla and Musa balbisiana Colla, from which all the parthenocarpic bananasoriginate . This genus comprises species that contain seeds, as well as an important amount of cultivars with parthenocarpic fruits. The banana tree is an herbaceous ‘perennial’ plant, since after fructification its aerial parts die, but are replaced by new sprouts that grow from the base. The highest types of the Cavendish series reach almost 8m high; although the normal height is between 3 and 6m. 

The real stem of the plant is an underground organ that is only visible outside the ground at the time of flowering. It is called bulb or corm, and is also known as head or strain, it has at the same time the characteristics of a rhizome and a bulb. It is an important device of storage, formed by a central cylinder surrounded by a protective cortex from which the roots, flowers and sprouts emerge; they will continue with the life of the plant. The root is superficial, although in the Canary Islands for example, they can deepen until they reach 1m. The leaves are very big, 2 to 4m long and even half meter wide, with a 1m or even longer stalk and elongate elliptical limb, slightly decurrent towards the stalk, little waved and glabrous. From the leaves crown, during the flowering, grows a pubescent scape, 5 to 6cm of diameter, finishing in a hanging cluster, 1-2m long. This cluster carries twenty oval and long bracts, acute, of red purple colour, covered by a whitish dust; from the axils of these bracts the flowers grow. 

The inflorescence is quite complex. Throughout the axis, the bracts (red in the Cavendish sub-group) are arranged in spiral, identical to the foliar system. Each bract covers a group of flowers deprived of individual bract and arranged in two twin rows. They are hermaphrodite, but only those that can be seen after the fold of the bracts are female, and will bear bananas or ‘fingers’ that contain 3 to 20 fruits, known as ‘hands’. The fruit is oblong, with the shape of a triangular cucumber, green at the beginning and yellow when ripe, although the colour may vary according to the cultivar; when it blacken, it falls of the tree, reason why it is collected before it matures. 

Origin and Production 

The origin of the banana tree is the Southeast of Asia, although the commercial culture originated in the Canary Islands, Spain, place where they are still produced. At the moment, the world production amounts for 58 million tons and the main producing countries are South America, Central America and Asia. The banana tree originates from the Southeast of Asia. From this origin it begun a long journey towards all the tropical and subtropical areas of the world. The first news on this species go back to the drawings found in the old ruins of the Java monument to Buddha, raised in Bordodur in 850 B.C. It is known in the Mediterranean 650 A.D. This species arrived at the Canary Islands in the XVth century; from there it was taken to America in 1516. The selected cultivars were introduced in the islands at the beginning of the XIXth century. The commercial production in the Canary Islands begins in the late part of the XIXth century and beginning of the XXth century. 

The world production is:

Continent	Thousand tons	%
Africa	7,232	12
Asia	26,588	45
Europe	425	1
North America	7,943:14
Oceania	951	2
South America	15,291	26
Total	58,430	100

Source: Fresh Produce Desk Book (1999)

The main producing countries of banana tree and banana in each continent are:

Country	Thousand tons
	Banana tree	Banana
India	10,200F(*)	-
Ecuador	7,494F	894F
Brazil	5,551	-
China	3,241F	-
Colombia	2,200F	2,597F
Costa Rica	2,200F	100F
Burundi	1,399	-
Uganda	585F	9,250F
Spain	410	-
Haiti	288	290F

Source: FAO Production Yearbook (1998)

(*) Value estimated by the FAO.

The main export countries are:

Country	Thousand $
Ecuador	1,070,125
Bel-Lux	759,202
Costa Rica	601,029
Colombia	476,102
The Philippines	217,040
France	189,136
Ivory coast	87,000
The Netherlands	75,608
Spain	74,587
Germany	72,789

Source: The FAO Trade Yearbook (1998)

The main import countries are the USA with 4,110,949, Japan with 864,854 and France with 315,148 thousand tons. Therefore, the banana is easily found in all the markets and points of sale, being the world production around 58,000 thousand tons and the main producing countries South America, Central America and Asia. In Europe, the main producing centre are the Canary Islands, Spain, 440.000tm in a surface of 8.500ha devoted to production. Since the implantation of the banana’s Common Market Organization (CMO), bananas from other countries are imported into Spain. More than 90% of the Spanish production is marketed in the Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal). The rest in the Canary Islands. Export outside the peninsula is only testimonial. 

Availability
Bananas are found in the markets all the year round, coming from diverse production areas, from the Canary Islands and other origins. The following table shows the availability of this fruit in the markets of the United Kingdom, the origin and the weight of the packages.
 
Origin    Availability in the United Kingdom    Weight of the packages 
  Belize    All the year    18,14 kg 
  Cameroon    All the year    15 kg 
  Ivory coast    All the year    15 kg 
  Dominican Republic    April-June    Several 
  Ghana    All the year    18,14 kg 
  Guadeloupe    All the year    15 kg 
  Jamaica    All the year    15kg 
  Kenya    August-May    6 kg 
  Martinique    All the year    15 kg 
  Philipines    All the year    18,14 kg 
  Suriname    All the year    18,14 kg 
  Windward Islands    All the year    15/18,14 kg 
  Colombia    All the year    18,14 kg 
  Costa Rica    All the year    18,14 kg 
  Ecuador    All the year    18,14 kg 
  Guatemala    All the year    18,14 kg 
  Honduras    All the year: :18,14 kg 
  México    All the year    18,14 kg 
  Panamá    All the year    18,14 kg  
Source: Fresh Produce Desk Book (1999) 

Packaging
Bananas are bought by weight or packaged either in trays covered with plastic or in perforated bags. Bananas are displayed in great cardboard boxes, and the ‘hands’ can be loose or packaged. In some shops, they are already weighed, in a perforated plastic bag and libelled or in flow pack, that is to say, in trays wrapped in plastic. Some companies have exhibitors with hangers to display the ‘hands’. 

Regulation
The Communitarian standards refer to bananas of the Series Cavendish and Gros Michel. The quality standard for the marketing of the European Union bananas refers to varieties of the genus Musa (AAA) spp., sub-groups Cavendish and Gros Michel, intended for the consumption after their preparation and packaging. From this regulation are excluded the vegetable bananas, that are usually consumed for cooking, those intended for the industry processing and ’Figue’ bananas. All bananas must be green, unripe, intact, consistent, sound, clean, practically free of parasites or damages caused by them, with an intact peduncle, without folds or fungi attacks and without drying, free from flowers, deformations and abnormal curvatures of the fingers (bananas), practically free of bruises and damages caused by low temperatures. They must have a normal external moisture and be free of any foreign smell or taste. Furthermore, the hands and handfuls (fragments of hands) must show enough surface of normal coloured top, sound and free of fungi attacks, clean top cut, without edges nor tips, no signals of pulling out or fragments of rachis. 

The development and maturity stage of bananas must be such as to enable them to withstand transport and handling and to reach their place of destination in satisfactory conditions, in order to reach a suitable degree of maturation after the harvesting. Along with all these minimum requirements, the quality standard for bananas includes special provisions for each class (‘Extra’ Class, Class I and Class II) and the tolerances allowed. The provisions concerning grading lay down the sizing by means of the fruit’s length, in centimetres and measured all along the convex part, from the point of insertion of the peduncle in the top up to the apex; thickness, that is to say, the measure, expressed in millimetres, of a transversal section of the fruit between its lateral side and the middle of it, perpendicular to the longitudinal axis. The reference so as to measure the length and thickness of the fruit will be the finger or average-sized banana placed in the outer row of the hand or the finger next to the cut, in the outer row of the handful used to cut the hand. 

The length and minimum thickness are fixed in 14cm and 27mm, respectively. 

Concerning presentation, that must be uniform, that is to say, each package must contain bananas of the same origin, variety and commercial type and class. The preparation of bananas must guarantee the suitable protection of the produce. The materials used in the package must be new, clean and of a quality such as to avoid causing any external or internal damage to the produce. The use of materials is authorized, being these papers or stamps in which there appear the commercial indications, provided the labelling and printing is made with non-toxic ink or glue. Each hand will have as minimum four bananas and each package must not have more than two fingers missing by handful, provided the peduncle has not been pulled out but cut clean and it does not damage the contiguous fruit. The package must bear the identification, nature (‘Bananas’, if the content is not visible, name of the variety or commercial type) and origin of the produce, marketing characteristics (Class, net weight and size) and official control mark. Moreover, Annex II of the regulation includes a list of the main groups, sub-groups and cultivars of the dessert bananas marketed. For further information on this legislation consult the original source. The quality standards for bananas are laid down in the Commission Regulation (EC) No 2257/94, of 16 September 1994. 

Quality Criteria 

Postharvest Atmosphere Management
The optimal temperature for the storage and transport varies according to the cultivar but it ranges from 13 to 14ºC. Later on, it is raised up to 15-20ºC for bananas to mature and they usually need the application of ethylene and controlled atmosphere. The bananas packed in cardboard boxes are transported to the markets in freezer ships. It is recommended to pre-cool the warehouses at 7ºC around two days before the load arrives, although nowadays in the modern banana ships they have great capacity for fast cooling and thus this operation is not so necessary. The optimal temperature for storage and transport is between 13 and 14ºC, although it may vary according to the cultivar (for example:’Pequeño Enano’ 11-12ºC and’Gran Enano’ 12,8ºC). The maturity stage of bananas at their place of destination is at present an automatic process that is carried out in isolated premises, with different capacity according to the amount of fruit. The optimal temperature of maturation is 15-20ºC. Most of the commercial varieties of bananas require the application of ethylene (100-150 ppm, 24-48 hours at 15-20ºC and relative humidity of 90-95%) to obtain a uniform maturation. The CO2 concentration must be maintained below 1%. The use of maturation systems such as forced air implies a uniformity in the heating or cooling of bananas, according to their needs, and the ethylene concentration throughout maturation. With the controlled atmosphere , at levels of 2-5% O2 and 2-5% CO2 during transport, the maturation may be delayed to supply bananas in satisfactory conditions. The respiration and the ethylene production of the fruit are also reduced. 

Postharvest Problems
Physiological alterations and diseases that may affect bananas: Chilling imjuries, skin burning, bruise effect, rot of the crown or top, anthracnose, peduncle rot, cigar end, bad torulosa Deightoniella and Panama disease. Bananas may undergo physiological alterations caused by unsuitable temperatures or relative humidity or because of unsufficient care during handling; or they may suffer from the symptoms caused by some fungi, causing different diseases. 

1. Chilling injuries
Symptoms include a discolouration of the external part, pale colour peduncle, the tissue of subepidermis forms dark brown stripes, they drop when they mature, and, in some cases, the flesh is bronced. This is caused by the exposure of bananas to temperatures below 13ºC, from several hours to several days, depending on the variety, maturity and temperature. The damaged fruits are prone to suffer mechanical damages. 

2. Skin burning
Caused by friction between fruits or against surfaces of the handling equipment. When they have been exposed to low relative humidity conditions (<90%), the fruit loses water through the bruises and the colour changes from brown to black. 

3. Bruise effect
The fall of bananas may lead to flesh bronzing without any appreciation in the skin. 

4. Crown rot
This disease is caused by one or more of the following fungi: Thielaviopsis paradoxa, Lasiodiplodia theobromae, Colletrotrichum musae, Deightoniella torulosa, and Fusarium roseum. They attack the hands’ cut surface. It begins with a softening of the fruit and from the rotten tissue of the hand the fungus grows and penetrates in the finger’s pedicel, and eventually, it affects the fruit. A meaningful characteristic of this disease is the presence of gray-whitish mycellium in the surface of the necrotic tissue. The recommended practices to avoid the increment of this disease are for example, to maintain the vegetal health in the plantation, the hygiene in the handling premises, the fungicide treatment of the crowns and to use chlorinated water in the tanks of fruit selection. 

5. Antracnosis
Caused by Colletrichum musae, it causes that bananas to ripen especially in the wounds and cracks of the skin. They are covered by an orange-salmon mycellium. Nevertheless, the flesh is not affected at all, unless the bananas are too ripe or bear high temperatures. 

6. Peduncle rot
Caused by Lasiodiplodia theobromae and/or Thielaviopsis paradoxa, that penetrate through the peduncle or the’hand’s’ cuts. The affected part of the flesh becomes smooth and watery. 

7. Cigar end
Caused by Verticillium theobromae and/or fructigena Trachysphaera. A necrosis in the end of the bananas takes place, resembling the ash of a pure cigar. This disease is prevented by deflowering, cutting the pistiles of the flowers twelve or fifteen days after the’ bunch’ grows or the inflorescence takes place.
For a good control of the fungus, spray directly to the cluster with benomile 50%, to 60-80g/hl or thiabendazole 60%, 150g/hl. 

8. Torulosa Deightoniella
Caused by the Deightoniella torulosa fungus that causes the development of spots of a dark green colour and oily appearance, 4mm of diameter, with a mark similar to an insect’s bite in the center, although it is not. It should not be confused, therefore, with the attack of trips or red spider, that happens frequently. The young fruits, ten to thirty days mature, are more prone to fungus than when they are already older than seventy to one hundred days. It seems that a bad drainage favours the development of the disease, a very narrow frame of plantation and an inadequate control of weeds. For their control, sprayings with copper, zineb, or maneb compounds are recommended, with a dose of 300g/hl of water, or benomile 50%, dose of 80g/hl. 

9. Panama disease
Disease caused by the Fusarium oxysporum F. sp. cubense fungus, that affects all the plant, and in special commercial varieties like Gros Michel. The Pequeña Enana variety, produced in the Canary Islands, is considered quite resistant to the fungus. The affected plants produce late’ clusters’ or they do not get to produce them. Bananas do not fill up with normality since the tissues do not grow as they should. These bananas are also called’snap beans’ bananas. The fruit is not rotten but the’hands’ produced are smaller than the normal ones, and therefore of smaller weight. The best thing to prevent it is to carry out suitable agricultural practices during the culture. 

Healthy Effects 

Health Benefits of Bananas
From a nutritional point of view, its high carbohydrate contents (22%) makes the banana a good source of energy. Its level of potassium is excellent (370-400mg/100g), contributing to maintain a balanced content of water in the body. Potassium is also known for its capacity to keep a clear mind, specially in the case of elderly people. Potassium is essential in the diet; its lack causes muscular weakness, mental disorder and heart problems. Bananas are a good source of vitamin C (10 mg/100 g. The recommended daily consumption is approximately 60 mg/day), of fibre, biotin (vitamin B), which reduces the proteins and the fat levels, and folic acid. According to new research results, vitamin B6, which is found in bananas, is essential for the division of the proteins that help to the formation of new tissues and red corpuscles. This vitamin is also necessary for the nervous and immunological systems, and at the same time it helps to prevent asthma symptoms and to reduce the risk of contracting cardiovascular diseases. The banana consumption has been recommended to those who suffer from alcoholism, those who are under haemodialysis treatment or those who suffer some chronic anaemia. Considering that bananas are a good soluble fibre source, a higher consumption of banana helps to reduce the levels of cholesterol and also to prevent constipation and diarrhea. 

Popular Tradition
The banana is the children’s favourite fruit, although it is very nutritious and healthy for everybody. Because of its potassium content, it is recommended in case of hypertension. 74% of its weight is water, but it is not normal water, it is rich in mineral salts, it detoxifies the organism and it gives a quick recovering in case of dehydration. It is important, nevertheless, to eat them well ripe; in this way, they will be assimilated, but if they are green, bananas can cause indigestion and fermentations, dyspepsia and constipation. Bananas are good for depression, since they raise the spirit and help to sleep. They increase the muscular energy and for that reason they are recommended for sportspeople. Nevertheless, they are bad for diabetes because of their great amount of starch and sugars, and they are not recommended in case of obesity due to their energetic value. 

Nutrition and Eating
The banana is rich in fibre, potassium and some beneficial vitamins for health. It is a good fruit for everybody except for diabetic and obese people, due to its high starch and sugar contents.